Abidjan Peace Agreement
Date Signed: 30 November, 1996
Accord Type: Comprehensive Peace Agreement
Country: Sierra Leone
6.94Implementation Score after 2 years
Provisions in this Accord
Cease Fire
1996
The Commission for the Consolidation of Peace was established after the peace agreement on 30 November 1996. The four-men RUF team and three former ministers and a senior advisor to Kabbah made up the commission for the consolidation of Peace. The RUF delegation to the commission came to Freetown for a talk on December 19, 1996. The commission was expected to begin its work in establishing six “committees which amongst other things will oversee the encampment and disarmament of soldiers.”1
1997
A serious breach against the ceasefire took place in January 1997, when the Kamakorjs launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun. This was condemned by the rebels as being “unprovoked.” Some argue that the continued actions of the Kamajors (which also included executions of RUF combatants that tried to resettle in their villages) was one of the main reasons for why the RUF ultimately rejected the 1996 accord and sided with the AFRC in May 1997.1
A civil defense group assisting the military to end the conflict reported on January 6, 1997 that “a huge rebel base has been discovered in the south of Sierra Leone”. According to the deputy chief of the Kamajors defense group over 2,000 rebels armed with light weapons and anti-air craft guns were at the camp in the Moyamba district, 200 kilometers away from Freetown.2
On March 15, 1997, The Economist reported that the country was sliding back to civil war. It was reported that the “demobilisation of the RUF had not begun: rebels should have had started moving into three assembly points but it had not yet been decided where these should be.”3
A coup took place on 26 May 1997, when Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers, together with RUF units, toppled Sierra Leone’s government and “clashed with Nigerian troops protecting President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah who fled into exile in Guinea.”4
In hindsite, there is general agreement that the peace process fell apart with fighting in the Moyamba district and with the 1997 coup against the government. “The Army accused Kabbah of putting more resources into the civil defense forces (primarily the Kamajors) than into the Army (SLA). The SLA and rebels aligned in opposition to Kabbah, the SLPP (Kabbah’s political party), and the CDFs.”5
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Rebel base discovered in Sierra Leone,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, January 6, 1997.
- “Sierra Leone. Sliding back to war?,” The Economist, March 15, 1997, 3.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London) May 26, 1997,13.
- Kendra Dupuy and Helga Malmin Binningsbø, “Power-sharing and Peace-building in Sierra Leone: Power-sharing Agreements, Negotiations and Peace Processes,” CSCW Policy Brief 7 (Oslo: PRIO/CSCW, 2007).
1998
RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 1
The armed conflict between the Government of Sierra Leone and the RUF/SL is hereby ended with immediate effect. Accordingly, the two sides will ensure that a total cessation of hostilities is observed forthwith.
Electoral/Political Party Reform
1996
The accord called for the legalization of RUF as a political party and the formation of a National Electoral Commission to reform the country’s electoral processes. There were no reports of these developments beginning in 1996 as fighting quickly renewed and demobilization was delayed.
1997
As of March 15, 1997, demobilization of the RUF had not begun.1 On May 26, 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers joined with RUF and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- “Sierra Leone. Sliding back to war?,” The Economist, March 15, 1997, 43.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 13
The Parties agree that immediately following the signing of the present Peace Agreement, the RUF/SL shall commence to function as a political movement with the rights, privileges and duties provided by law; and that within thirty days, following that, the necessary conditions shall be created to enable the RUF/SL to register as a political movement according to law.
ARTICLE 18 The Parties agree to the principle of reforming the present electoral process in Sierra Leone. There shall, in that regard, be the full participation of citizens and their organizations in formulating electoral reforms. The independence and integrity of the National Electoral Commission shall be guaranteed to ensure fair and acceptable electoral exercise.
In reconstituting the National Electoral Commission, the President shall consult all political parties and movements including the RUF/SL to determine the membership and terms of reference of that Commission, paying particular attention to the need for a level playing field in the nation’s electoral politics.
Both the Government and the RUF/SL shall, together with other political parties, nominate men and women of professionalism, integrity and objectivity to the National Electoral Commission, not later than three months after the signing of the present Peace Agreement.
It is hereby agreed that no member of the National Electoral Commission shall be eligible for appointment to a political office by any government formed as a result of an election they were mandated to conduct.
Civil Administration Reform
1996
No reforms regarding training for public sector employees took place this year. Nor were any offices established for that purpose.1
1997
No reforms regarding training for public sector employees took place from January to May. On May 26, 1997, RUF forces and AFRC forces toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into exile in Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war this year.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 16
The Parties agree that the standards of accountability, integrity and probity in the public services of Sierra Leone shall be raised. To that end, immediate steps shall be taken to establish the office of Ombudsman to promote the implementation of a professional code of ethics, and the integrity and patriotism of all public servants. It shall also seek to eradicate all forms of corruption.
Truth or Reconciliation Mechanism
1996
The peace agreement called for the establishment of two main commissions: (a) the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, and (2) the Joint Commission for the Consolidation of Peace. The Joint Commission for the Consolidation of Peace was set up immediately after the peace agreement in December of 1996 but the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission was not established.1
1997
In 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and soldiers under his command formed an alliance with RUF rebels and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 15
The mandate and membership of the existing National Unity and Reconciliation Commission shall be expanded in consultation with the Commission for the Consolidation of Peace to enable it to undertake a sustained and effective campaign of civic education aimed at enhancing national unity and reconciliation, taking into account the imperative need to heal the wounds of the conflict.
Dispute Resolution Committee
1996
The accord called for the establishment of a Commission for the Consolidation of Peace to verify implementation and make policy recommendations which were to be binding. The Commission for the Consolidation of Peace was reported as having been established in December of 1996. The commission was expected to begin its work in establishing six “committees which amongst other things will oversee the encampment and disarmament of soldiers.” A four-men RUF team and three former ministers and a senior advisor to Kabbah made up the commission. The RUF delegation to the commission came to Freetown for talks at least once on 19 December 1996.1
Beyond that initial meeting, the committee never became operational and did not meet again. Sources describe the event as a ploy by RUF to buy some time while they consolidated their military forces for a final push.2
- “Sierra Leone rebels come to capital for talks,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, December 19, 1996.
- Kendra Dupuy and Helga Malmin Binningsbø, “Power-sharing and Peace-building in Sierra Leone: Power-sharing Agreements, Negotiations and Peace Processes,” CSCW Policy Brief 7 (Oslo: PRIO/CSCW, 2007).
1997
In 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 3
A national body to be known as the Commission for the Consolidation of Peace shall be established within two weeks of the signing of this Agreement. The Commission shall be a verification mechanism responsible for supervising and monitoring the implementation of and compliance with all the provisions contained in this Peace Agreement.
The Commission, in fulfillment of this task during the period of consolidating the peace, shall coordinate and facilitate the work of the following bodies which it will proceed to establish:
(i) Socio-Economic Forum;
(ii) Citizen’s Consultative Conferences;
(iii) Multi-partisan Council;
(iv) Trust Fund for the Consolidation of Peace;
(v) Demobilizations and Resettlement Committee;
(vi) National Budget and Debt Committee.
The Commission shall comprise representatives of the Government and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone, drawing on the resources of State and civic institutions as and when necessary.
The Commission shall have the power to recommend the preparation of enabling measures necessary for the implementation and development of the provisions contained in this Peace Agreement. It shall have the power to issue publicly its conclusions. The parties undertake to comply with the conclusions of the Commission.
The Commission shall have the power to prepare preliminary legislative drafts necessary for the implementation and development of the provisions contained in the present Peace Agreement.
The Parties undertake to consult the Commission before taking decisions on measures relating to the present Peace Agreement.
The Commission may similarly consult the Parties at the highest level whenever it is appropriate.
The Commission shall have access to and may inspect any activity or site connected with the implementation of the present Peace Agreement. The Commission shall have full powers to organize its work in the manner in which it deems most appropriate and to appoint any group or subcommittee which it may deem useful in the discharge of its functions.
The Commission shall have its own offices, adequate communication facilities and adequate secretariat support staff.
A Trust Fund for the Consolidation of Peace shall be established to provide funding for the implementation of the present Peace Agreement.
Judiciary Reform
1996
No judicial reforms were undertaken in 1996. The Judicial and Legal Service Commission was not established.1
1997
In 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 24
The Parties agree that the independence of the judiciary shall be strengthened in accordance with its role of ensuring the fair and impartial dispensation of justice in a democratic order. The composition of the present Judicial and Legal Service Commission shall be determined so as to ensure the independence of the judiciary from the other organs of State as well as the political parties. Its membership shall include, in addition to judges and representatives of the legal profession and public services, representatives of other sectors of society not directly connected with the administration of justice.
Military Reform
1996
The accord called for the integration of RUF forces into the national army and a downsizing of the national military. There were no integration programs or military reforms undertaken in 1996. The joint committee responsible for this program was not established and demobilization stalled.1
1997
In 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 9
The Commission shall, as a priority, make recommendations on the restructuring and reorientation of the military as well as its leadership. In this context, members of the RUF/SL who may wish to be part of the country’s military can become part of the new unified armed forces within a framework to be discussed and agreed upon by the Commission.
ARTICLE 10 The Government of Sierra Leone shall ensure the return to barracks of those units of the army not required for normal security duties and the downsizing of the Armed Forces of Sierra Leone (RSLMF), taking into account the security needs of the country.
Police Reform
1996
The accord called for the professionalization of the police force with reforms and programs aimed at increasing respect for human rights and reducing corruption. No such programs were undertaken in 1996. The Police Council was not established.1
1997
In 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 25
The Police Force shall be strengthened to ensure that the rule of law is upheld throughout Sierra Leone. To that end, the present Police Force shall be vetted. Furthermore, the professional training of the Police Force shall henceforth assure a new orientation, by emphasizing professionalism, the importance of human dignity and democratic values and respect and protection of human rights. It shall, further, emphasize that the conduct of members of the Police Force shall be free from all partisan considerations of politics, ideology and social position and that the Police Force shall avoid and combat corruption. Nominations for the Police Council will come from wider sectors of society prior to their appointment so as to ensure their truly civilian and non-partisan character.
Demobilization
1996
The parties failed to establish the Demobilization and Resettlement Committee. The Assembly Zones were not set up and no troop movements took place this year.1
1997
The Assembly Zones were not established and no troop movements took place prior to May 1996. In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 5
The disarmament of combatants will be effected upon their entry into the designated assembly zones, and demobilization and reintegration as soon as practicable thereafter. The upkeep and welfare of the encamped combatants shall be the primary responsibility of the Government of Sierra Leone in conjunction with the Commission for the Consolidation of Peace, assisted by the international community.
ARTICLE 6
The Parties commit themselves to a well-planned national effort on encampment, disarmament, demobilization and resettlement linked to national development objectives. To that end, a Demobilization and Resettlement Committee shall be established within a month of the signing of the present Peace Agreement. The Committee shall coordinate the encampment, disarmament, demobilization and resettlement of RUF/SL combatants. The Committee shall work in coordination with all the relevant institutions and agencies. Both Parties shall consult on the nomination of the membership of the Committee which shall not exceed seven persons. The Committee shall be provided with adequate funding.
ARTICLE 7
The Demobilization and Resettlement Committee shall identify assembly zones and camp areas for RUF/SL combatants where they shall be registered, encamped and disarmed. The movement into the Assembly Zones shall commence within one month of the signing of this Agreement and be completed as soon as practicable but no later than three months from this date.
Disarmament
1996
No disarmament programs were undertaken in 1996.1 Sankoh (the leader of RUF) attempted to purchase arms in Nigeria following the peace accord.2
- “Sierra Leone rebels come to capital for talks,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, December 19, 1996.
- Kendra Dupuy and Helga Malmin Binningsbø, “Power-sharing and Peace-building in Sierra Leone: Power-sharing Agreements, Negotiations and Peace Processes,” CSCW Policy Brief 7 (Oslo: PRIO/CSCW, 2007).
1997
In 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 5
The disarmament of combatants will be effected upon their entry into the designated assembly zones, and demobilization and reintegration as soon as practicable thereafter. The upkeep and welfare of the encamped combatants shall be the primary responsibility of the Government of Sierra Leone in conjunction with the Commission for the Consolidation of Peace, assisted by the international community.
Reintegration
1996
The parties failed to establish both the Demobilization and Resettlement Committee and the Assembly Zones. No troop movements took place this year.1
1997
The parties failed to initiate any aspect of the DDR program prior to May 1997. In May 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.1
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 6
The Parties commit themselves to a well-planned national effort on encampment, disarmament, demobilization and resettlement linked to national development objectives. To that end, a Demobilization and Resettlement Committee shall be established within a month of the signing of the present Peace Agreement. The Committee shall coordinate the encampment, disarmament, demobilization and resettlement of RUF/SL combatants. The Committee shall work in coordination with all the relevant institutions and agencies. Both Parties shall consult on the nomination of the membership of the Committee which shall not exceed seven persons. The Committee shall be provided with adequate funding.
ARTICLE 7
The Demobilization and Resettlement Committee shall identify assembly zones and camp areas for RUF/SL combatants where they shall be registered, encamped and disarmed. The movement into the Assembly Zones shall commence within one month of the signing of this Agreement and be completed as soon as practicable but no later than three months from this date.
Prisoner Release
1996
No prisoner swaps took place following the accord.1
1997
In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun. This was condemned by the rebels as being unprovoked. Keen argues that the continued actions of the Kamajors (which also included executions of RUF combatants that attempted to resettle in their home villages) was one of the main reasons for why the RUF rejected the 1996 accord and sided with the AFRC in May 1997.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- Keen, David 2005. Conflict & Collusion in Sierra Leone. Palgrave Macmillan, pp.193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 19
To foster national reconciliation and ensure the full and unrestricted participation of the RUF/SL in the political process, the RUF/SL shall enjoy:
(i) Freedom of the press and access to the media in order that they may be heard and informed.
(ii) Freedom of association, expression, assembly and the right to mobilize and demonstrate freely, and to communicate politically in order that they may organize effectively and set up appropriate infrastructure. All political prisoners and prisoners of war, if any, shall be released.
Paramilitary Groups
1996
Executive Outcomes was a private military firm founded in South Africa by Eeben Barlow, the former Lieutenant-Colonel of the South African Defence Force. There were no reports of Executive Outcomes soldiers leaving Sierra Leone in 1996.
1997
The South African mercenaries belonging to Executive Outcomes were contracted by the government to protect the diamond mines from rebels and thieves. The exact number of mercenaries in the country is not clear, but according to one report, “they numbered 250 a little over a year ago when Freetown was within reach of Revolutionary United Front guns.” The BBC reported that troops from Executive Outcomes left Sierra Leone in late January or early February 1997.1
1998
No further developments regarding the paramilitary firm known as Executive Outcomes.
RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 12
The Executive Outcomes shall be withdrawn five weeks after the deployment of the Neutral Monitoring Group (NMG). As from the date of the deployment of the Neutral Monitoring Group, the Executive Outcomes shall be confined to barracks under the supervision of the Joint Monitoring Group and the Neutral Monitoring Group. Government shall use all its endeavours, consistent with its treaty obligations, to repatriate other foreign troops no later than three months after the deployment of the Neutral Monitoring Group or six months after the signing of the Peace Agreement, whichever is earlier.
Human Rights
1996
An independent National Commission on Human Rights was not established. None of the above mentioned reforms related to the improvement of human rights conditions were undertaken in 1996. Amnesty International reports that one week after the peace agreement was signed by the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), more than 150 civilians were killed in the north of the country.1
1997
In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun in violation of the accord. Keen argues that the continued actions of the Kamajors (which also included executions of RUF combatants that attempted to resettle in their home villages) was one of the main reasons for why the RUF rejected the 1996 accord and sided with the AFRC in May 1997.1 In April of 1997, RUF members were engaged in hostage taking.2
In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.3
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone; Amnesty Calls on RUF to Release Hostages,” Africa News, April 30, 1997.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 19
The Parties agree that the basic civil and political liberties which are recognized by the Sierra Leone legal system and are contained in the Declarations and Principles on Human Rights adopted by the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity, especially the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights, shall be fully guaranteed and promoted within Sierra Leone society.
These include the right to life and liberty, freedom from torture; the right to a fair trial, freedom of conscience, expression and association, and the right to take part in the governance of one’s country.
To foster national reconciliation and ensure the full and unrestricted participation of the RUF/SL in the political process, the RUF/SL shall enjoy:
(i) Freedom of the press and access to the media in order that they may be heard and informed.
(ii) Freedom of association, expression, assembly and the right to mobilize and demonstrate freely, and to communicate politically in order that they may organize effectively and set up appropriate infrastructure.
All political prisoners and prisoners of war, if any, shall be released.
ARTICLE 20
To monitor compliance with the basic rights guaranteed in the present Peace Agreement, as well as to promote human rights education throughout the various sectors of Sierra Leonean society, including schools, the media, the police and the military, an independent National Commission on Human Rights shall be established.
In pursuance of the above, technical and material assistance may be sought from the United Nations Special Commission on Human Rights, the United Nations Centre for Human Rights, the African Commission on Human and the People’s Rights and other relevant international organizations.
The National Commission on Human Rights shall have the power to investigate human rights violations and to institute legal proceedings where appropriate. Further, a consortium of local human rights groups shall be encouraged to help monitor human rights observance.
ARTICLE 21
The Parties undertake to respect the principles and rules of international humanitarian law.
Amnesty
1996
No legislative measures were taken with respect to amnesty.
1997
In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun. This was condemned by the rebels as being unprovoked. Keen argues that the continued actions of the Kamajors (which also included executions of RUF combatants that attempted to resettle in their home villages) was one of the main reasons for why the RUF rejected the 1996 accord and sided with the AFRC in May 1997.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 14
To consolidate the peace and promote the cause of national reconciliation, the Government of Sierra Leone shall ensure that no official or judicial action is taken against any member of the RUF/SL in respect of anything done by them in pursuit of their objectives as members of that organization up to the time of the signing of this Agreement. In addition, legislative and other measures necessary to guarantee former RUF/SL combatants, exiles and other persons, currently outside the country for reasons related to the armed conflict shall be adopted ensuring the full exercise of their civil and political rights, with a view to their reintegration within a framework of full legality.
Education Reform
1996
No educational reforms were undertaken following the accord as the peace process quickly broke down.
1997
In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun. Keen argues that the continued actions of the Kamajors (which also included executions of RUF combatants that attempted to resettle in their home villages) was one of the main reasons for why the RUF rejected the 1996 accord and sided with the AFRC in May 1997.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 26
c. Improved educational services to enable all children of primary and junior-secondary school age to receive free and compulsory schooling as well as provide the opportunity for the youth and all other Sierra Leoneans to receive affordable quality education
Media Reform
1996
No media reforms were undertaken following the accord. Despite numerous promises to protect free speech and freedom of the press made in 1996, “the government of President Kabbah has shown intolerance toward criticism of its policies or officials by banning newspapers that publish uncomplimentary articles and detaining journalists. The frequent use of criminal libel and sedition charges against independent journalists has encouraged self-censorship, and the imposition of heavy fines is financially crippling the private press.” Torchlight, a new independent newspaper, was shutdown and officially banned on the day of its first issue which contained a story critical of the President. 1
- “Sierra Leone 1996,” Committee to Protect Journalists, accessed Jan 19, 2015, https://www.cpj.org/attacks96/countries/africa/sierraleonerhs.html.
1997
In 1997, an increasing number of journalists were arrested for critical coverage of the President and other officials. According to the Committee to Project Journalists, 1997 was characterized by a serious crackdown on the media:
“The proposed press law amendments include provisions requiring editors to have 10 years’ prior experience in journalism, five of them in an editorial capacity, and all journalists to hold a degree in their field. Members of the press would be subject to police certification. And a proposed measure directed at controlling publications that the government regards as radical would require newspapers that began circulation after February 1996 to re-register. On May 6, the parliament passed the first section of these amendments to the press law, known as the Newspaper Act of 1997, by an overwhelming majority. The Media Practitioner’s Act of 1997 passed unanimously on May 12. Both bills will now go to Kabbah to be signed into law.”1
- “Sierra Leone 1997,” Committee to Project Journalists, accessed Jan 19, 2015, http://cpj.org/reports/1997/05/sierra.php.
1998
At least 20 reporters were imprisoned in 1998 for critical coverage of the government’s handling of the war.1
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.2
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Sierra Leone 1998,” Committee to Project Journalists, accessed Jan 19, 2015, http://cpj.org/reports/1998/05/sierra.php.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 19
To foster national reconciliation and ensure the full and unrestricted participation of the RUF/SL in the political process, the RUF/SL shall enjoy:
(i) Freedom of the press and access to the media in order that they may be heard and informed.
Economic and Social Development
1996
None of the socio-economic reform programs were initiated as the peace process quickly broke down.
1997
In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 22
In the pursuit of the reconstruction, rehabilitation and socio-economic development of Sierra Leone as a matter of the utmost priority, special attention shall be given to rural and urban poor areas, war victims, disabled persons and other vulnerable groups. The Government in conjunction with the Committee for Demobilization and Resettlement shall cooperate with all political parties and movements, including the RUF/SL, to raise resources internationally for these objectives during the initial phase of the consolidation of peace.
ARTICLE 23
The Government shall do all in its power to mobilize resources internally and externally to meet the needs of post-war reconstruction and socio-economic development.
ARTICLE 26
It is recognized that there is a socio-economic dimension to the conflict which must also be addressed in order to consolidate the foundation of the peace. Accordingly, the socio-economic policy of Sierra Leone shall be guided among other things, by the following principles, taking into account available resources:
(i) Enhancement of the nation’s productive capacity through meaningful grassroots participation in the reconstruction and development of the country;
(ii) The provision of equal opportunities to all Sierra Leoneans especially those in the countryside and the urban poor, with the aim of equitable distribution of the nation’s resources thereby empowering them to contribute effectively to decision-making and implementation of policies which affect their lives;
(iii) Improving the quality of life of the people through the provision of inter alia,
a. Primary health care in all villages and towns;
b. Affordable and quality housing, especially in the countryside and
poor urban areas;
c. Improved educational services to enable all children of primary and junior-secondary school age to receive free and compulsory schooling as well as provide the opportunity for the youth and
all other Sierra Leoneans to receive affordable quality education;
d. Clean drinking water and a sewerage system in every village and town;
e. Provide job opportunities in a systematic and sustainable way for the people, especially the youth;
f. Promote and sustain rural development and support agriculture in terms of technical, credit and marketing facilities;
g. Provide support for production and provision of basic food and nutritional requirements of the people and food security in general;
h. Protect the environment and regulate the exploitation of natural resources in the interest of the people, as well as prohibit monopolies;
i. Provide the required infrastructure such as roads, transport and communications, energy and rural electrification, for improved living conditions, especially of the rural people;
j. Seek to obtain debt relief in order to transfer funds from debt servicing to meet the urgent requirements of rebuilding a war torn society.
ARTICLE 27
A broad-based socio-economic forum, in which the RUF/SL shall participate, shall be established with a view to enriching policy formulation and execution in the socio-economic sector.
Donor Support
1996
Donor support could not be pursued as the peace process quickly broke down into renewed violence and the demobilization program was disregarded. No donor conferences were held.
1997
In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 17
The Parties shall approach the international community with a view to mobilizing resources which will be used to establish a trust fund to enable the RUF/SL to transform itself into a political party.
Detailed Implementation Timeline
1996
None of the specific provisions mentioned in the timeline were implemented within the specified timeframe this year. The DDR process was abandoned before it began. The Demobilization and Resettlement Committee was never operational and no Assembly Zones were established. The mercenaries from the defense firm Executive Outcomes left the country on their own in February of 1997 rather than being confined to barracks under the supervision of the Joint Monitoring Group and the Neutral Monitoring Group as stipulated in the accord. The Neutral Monitoring Group (NMG) was not created. The RUF/SL were not transformed into a political party and a National Electoral Commission was never established.
1997
None of the specific provisions mentioned in the timeline were implemented as the peace process quickly broke down into renewed violence. In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 6
The Parties commit themselves to a well-planned national effort on encampment, disarmament, demobilization and resettlement linked to national development objectives. To that end, a Demobilization and Resettlement Committee shall be established within a month of the signing of the present Peace Agreement.
ARTICLE 7
The Demobilization and Resettlement Committee shall identify assembly zones and camp areas for RUF/SL combatants where they shall be registered, encamped and disarmed. The movement into the Assembly Zones shall commence within one month of the signing of this Agreement and be completed as soon as practicable but no later than three months from this date.
ARTICLE 12
The Executive Outcomes shall be withdrawn five weeks after the deployment of the Neutral Monitoring Group (NMG). As from the date of the deployment of the Neutral Monitoring Group, the Executive Outcomes shall be confined to barracks under the supervision of the Joint Monitoring Group and the Neutral Monitoring Group. Government shall use all its endeavours, consistent with its treaty obligations, to repatriate other foreign troops no later than three months after the deployment of the Neutral Monitoring Group or six months after the signing of the Peace Agreement, whichever is earlier.
ARTICLE 13
The Parties agree that immediately following the signing of the present Peace Agreement, the RUF/SL shall commence to function as a political movement with the rights, privileges and duties provided by law; and that within thirty days, following that, the necessary conditions shall be created to enable the RUF/SL to register as a political movement according to law.
ARTICLE 18
Both the Government and the RUF/SL shall, together with other political parties, nominate men and women of professionalism, integrity and objectivity to the National Electoral Commission, not later than three months after the signing of the present Peace Agreement.
Natural Resource Management
1996
The peace process quickly broke down. No reports could be found of government reform efforts or legislation aimed at reforming Natural Resource Management in 1996.
1997
No reports could be found of government reform efforts or legislation aimed at reforming Natural Resource Management in 1997. In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun. The RUF rejected the 1996 accord and sided with the AFRC in May 1997.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 26
Protect the environment and regulate the exploitation of natural resources in the interest of the people, as well as prohibit monopolies;
Review of Agreement
1996
The national body to be called the Commission for the Consolidation of Peace was not established as the peace process quickly broke down.
1997
In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun. The RUF rejected the 1996 accord and sided with the AFRC in May 1997.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 2
The Government and the RUF/SL undertake that no effort shall be spared to effect the scrupulous respect and implementation of the provisions contained in this Peace Agreement to ensure that the establishment and consolidation of a just peace becomes a priority in Sierra Leone.
ARTICLE 3
A national body to be known as the Commission for the Consolidation of Peace shall be established within two weeks of the signing of this Agreement. The Commission shall be a verification mechanism responsible for supervising and
monitoring the implementation of and compliance with all the provisions contained in this Peace Agreement.
The Commission, in fulfilment of this task during the period of consolidating the peace, shall coordinate and facilitate the work of the following bodies which it will proceed to establish:
(i) Socio-Economic Forum;
(ii) Citizen’s Consultative Conferences;
(iii) Multi-partisan Council;
(iv) Trust Fund for the Consolidation of Peace;
(v) Demobilizations and Resettlement Committee;
(vi) National Budget and Debt Committee.
The Commission shall comprise representatives of the Government and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone, drawing on the resources of State and civic institutions as and when necessary. The Commission shall have the power to recommend the preparation of enabling measures necessary for the implementation and development of the provisions contained in this Peace Agreement. It shall have the power to issue publicly its conclusions. The parties undertake to comply with the conclusions of the Commission. The Commission shall have the power to prepare preliminary legislative drafts necessary for the implementation and development of the provisions contained in the present Peace Agreement. The Parties undertake to consult the Commission before taking decisions on measures relating to the present Peace Agreement. The Commission may similarly consult the Parties at the highest level whenever it is appropriate. The Commission shall have access to and may inspect any activity or site connected with the implementation of the present Peace Agreement. The Commission shall have full powers to organize its work in the manner in which it deems most appropriate and to appoint any group or subcommittee which it may deem useful in the discharge of its functions.
Verification/Monitoring Mechanism
1996
The Neutral Monitoring Group (NMG) composed of international actors was not established in 1996.
1997
The Neutral Monitoring Group (NMG) composed of international actors was not established in 1997. In January 1997, two months after the peace accord was signed, the SLPP government and Kamajors launched attacks against RUF units in northern Kailahun. The RUF rejected the 1996 accord and sided with the AFRC in May 1997.1 In May of 1997, Major Johnny Paul Koroma and his soldiers formed an alliance with RUF troops and toppled Sierra Leone’s government. President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah fled into Guinea.2
- David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005),193-197.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader claims power,” The Independent (London), May 26, 1997, 13.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 8
The Parties shall request the international community to help supervise and monitor the encampment, disarmament, demobilization and reintegration processes. The Joint Monitoring Group shall have observers at any of these processes.
ARTICLE 11
A Neutral Monitoring Group (NMG) from the international community shall be responsible for monitoring breaches of the ceasefire provided under this Peace Agreement. Both Parties upon signing this Agreement shall request the international community to provide neutral monitors. Such monitors when deployed shall be in position for an initial period of three months. The Neutral Monitoring Group shall report any violations of the ceasefire to its headquarters which shall in turn communicate the same to the headquarters of the Joint Monitoring Group comprising of representatives of the Government of Sierra Leone and the RUF based in Freetown.
Withdrawal of Troops
1996
According to the The Courier Mail (Queensland), foreign troops were supporting the Sierra Leone army against the RUF and those forces were not withdrawn immediately after the signing of the peace agreement.1
1997
After the military coup in May 1997, all foreign troops supporting the army were ordered back to their respective local bases.1 The leader of the military coup (Major Johnny Paul Koroma) was involved in negotiations on May 31, 1997 with senior representatives of other West African states in an effort to prevent a conflict between the foreign troops inside Sierra Leone and his Units.2
Together with Ivory Coast, Guinea and Ghana, Nigeria began an effort in July 1997 to restore President Kabbah to power.
- “Sierra Leone rocked by coup,” Courier Mail.
- “Sierra Leone coup leader in talks to avert military intervention,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, May 31, 1997.
1998
In 1998, the former government ousted the RUF/AFRC government. RUF and the former government returned to full scale civil war in 1998.1
Coding for this case ceased on December 31, 1998.
- “Uppsala Conflict Data Program,” Uppsala University Department of Peace and Conflict Research, accessed June 3, 2011, www.ucdp.uu.se/database.
ARTICLE 12
…Government shall use all its endeavors, consistent with its treaty obligations, to repatriate other foreign troops no later than three months after the deployment of the Neutral Monitoring Group or six months after the signing of the Peace Agreement, whichever is earlier.
Please always cite: “Annualized implementation data on comprehensive intrastate peace accords, 1989–2012.” Madhav Joshi, Jason Michael Quinn, and Patrick M. Regan. Journal of Peace Research 52 (2015): 551-562.